A Cross-National State of the Art
The SPARK project, funded by Erasmus+, was created to strengthen the confidence and capacity of school leaders, teachers, and parents in delivering high-quality Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE).
As a first strategic step, the partnership developed in-depth literature reviews in Ireland, Portugal, Cyprus, Greece, and Italy. These reports map the historical evolution of CSE, analyse current legal and policy frameworks, and identify implementation challenges. Together, they provide an evidence-based foundation for the design of SPARK’s training modules.
National Landscapes: Between Institutionalisation and Fragmentation
The five countries present markedly different trajectories, ranging from structured and mandatory provision to fragmented and contested initiatives.
- Ireland
CSE is delivered under the name Relationships and Sexuality Education (RSE) and has been a mandatory component of the Social, Personal and Health Education (SPHE) curriculum since 1999. Curriculum reforms in 2018 and 2025 expanded the scope to include themes such as consent, LGBTI+ matters, and the impact of digital media. Despite this consolidated framework, challenges persist in relation to teacher confidence and the influence of individual school ethos, often shaped by religious identity. - Portugal
CSE was institutionalised through Law No. 60/2009, making it mandatory nationwide. It is integrated into the curriculum through health education and the National Strategy for Citizenship, and aligns substantially with international guidelines (WHO/UNESCO). However, implementation remains uneven, mainly due to insufficient specialised teacher training and episodes of sociocultural resistance. - Cyprus
The adoption of the Holistic Sexual Education Law 205(I)/2022 marked a significant turning point, establishing CSE as mandatory in both public and private schools. The curriculum is grounded in an “action-competence” model that prioritises empowerment over purely biological instruction. Nevertheless, the topic remains politically and religiously contested, with ongoing parliamentary debates around restrictive amendments. - Greece
Sexuality education is not structured as a standalone subject. Instead, it is embedded within “Skills Labs” (introduced in 2021) and “Active Citizenship” initiatives. While general guidance is provided by the Ministry of Education, Greece lacks a dedicated CSE curriculum and standardised textbooks. Implementation depends largely on individual teachers’ initiative, often without adequate state-supported training, leading some observers to describe it as a “ghost subject.” - Italy
Italy represents a case of structural non-institutionalisation. CSE is not mandatory and there is no national framework. Existing initiatives are typically fragmented, short-term, and frequently limited to STI prevention. The public debate is highly polarised, with strong opposition from “anti-gender” movements and conservative political actors. Recent legislative initiatives in 2025 have aimed to further restrict sexuality education in schools.
Shared Barriers to Quality CSE
Across all five contexts, recurring challenges highlight a structural gap between policy ambition and classroom reality:
- Insufficient Teacher Training
There is a consistent disconnect between formal frameworks and effective implementation, largely due to limited pre-service and in-service preparation. - Sociocultural and Religious Resistance
Conservative norms and religious values often generate hesitation, self-censorship, or avoidance among educators. - Media Dynamics
Public debate is frequently shaped by sensationalist narratives that focus on “sensitive” themes, contributing to moral panic rather than evidence-based understanding. - Inclusion Gaps
Students with Special Educational Needs (SEN) and LGBTQI+ students are often insufficiently considered, as curricula and materials rarely address their specific realities and learning needs.
From Analysis to Action: The Role of SPARK
The national reviews developed within SPARK do more than describe the current state of play. They function as a strategic roadmap.
By identifying teacher confidence and meaningful parental engagement as key enablers of effective CSE, the reports provide a clear direction: strengthening the educational community is essential to ensuring a cohesive, holistic, and rights-based approach to sexuality education across Europe.
To complement the literature-based analysis, SPARK is currently conducting interviews with school leaders and organising focus groups with teachers and parents in each partner country. This qualitative phase is designed to update and deepen the needs assessment, capturing lived experiences, perceived barriers, and concrete training expectations.
The insights gathered will directly inform the development of tailored training pathways, ensuring that the project’s capacity-building actions respond to real, context-specific needs rather than abstract policy frameworks.
SPARK thus moves from analysis to co-design: from mapping challenges to building practical, sustainable solutions with and for school communities.
